Well if you have rockets to go into space, it is the same technology as intercontinental missiles. So there'd be a lot of nervousness if you gave that technology to say N. Korea or some such. And prohibited technology transfer. Simplest, let's suppose you are using a SpaceX rocket, or some such. Just pay them to launch your mission.
The main regulation I think is planetary protection. For Europa, since it probably has a habitable ocean, you wouldn't get permission to go if you are sending humans there. If you are sending robots though, then you would have to follow whatever requirements are needed for planetary protection. This could be a major challenge for the surface.
If your mission is an orbiter, then you need to show that you have an end of mission plan to prevent it contaminating Europa.
For Ganymede, it also has a subsurface ocean. But probably no communication with the surface in the recent geological past. You might be able to land humans there. It's provisional category II like Ceres meaning more research is needed. So, a mission right now would probably have to play safe and assume you treat the surface as if it is going to be contaminated by a human or unsterilized lander until we know more.
That's different from for instance the Moon which is a confirmed category II so there are considered to be no planetary protection issues involved even landing humans there, you just have to document clearly what you did and where you went.
Callisto is the best for humans because it is furthest out, and so least by way of radiation hazard from Jupiter - and if it has a subsurface ocean - well its surface is very ancient looking. Just craters, no other type of terrain. So the current understanding is that there is no communication with any subsurface ocean, so even though it probably has a subsurface ocean, its about 200 km below the surface and is thought to have no communication at all with the surface.
It doesn't have the tidal heating of Europa so the rocky core is probably just slowly cooling down with little or no activity. But is not impossible it has microbial life down there.
Interior of Callisto
Anyway because of that complete isolation of any ocean from the surface in all the models of the moon, Callisto is classified by COSPAR as category II like the Moon so you can just go ahead and land humans there and nobody will stop you. You just have to provide documentation of everything you do there.
The planetary protection rules, whatever they are, are enforced by all the countries involved in the flight. That includes the country you launch from, your country of citizenship, if you have astronauts then all their countries of citizenship - if it is an international organization then all the countries involved in that also. They are like quarantine rules somewhat. Or rules protecting Antarctica or the sea floor. Every country is responsible for the actions of its citizens. Doesn't matter how you get into space. What matters is what you plan to do when you are there.
Everybody with any plans to do any space activities plans to follow the requirements of planetary protection. Even N. Korea has signed and ratified the outer space treaty. Syria hasn't ratified it, but doesn't seem at all likely it would launch a mission to Jupiter and if it does reach that level of capability then presumably it would ratify it too by then like N. Korea.
The country you launch from may well have many other things you have to do. In the US you have to do an environmental impact assessment of your launch for instance. If you have nuclear materials on board, as you might well do, then you have to prove that it is properly contained and can't harm people even in the event that your rocket explodes on the launch pad or during the ascent.
I'm sure there is much more.
It's sort of like building a skyscraper. You can't just turn up with a lorry and a load of cement and steel and start building whatever you like, have to prove to everyone that your plans are safe for you and for everyone else.
For humans in space, then the regulations for commercial flight are not yet fully worked out. That's deliberate to give the commercial private companies time to develop their ideas first, to give them flexibility to innovate. So then the regulations can be developed later once they have some concrete examples to legislate for. So that's a reason for less regulation, on the other hand the commercial companies want enough certainty about what the regulations will be to design spaceships to comply with them, so there are these two competing strands of thought involved there.
Right now that is very much in a state of flux. I'm not sure what the latest is, but this is from August 27 of this year. The Sky's the Limit With Commercial Space Flight Law
I'm not at all expert in this, hopefully others will explain more, just to get it started and because you asked me to answer.
The main regulation I think is planetary protection. For Europa, since it probably has a habitable ocean, you wouldn't get permission to go if you are sending humans there. If you are sending robots though, then you would have to follow whatever requirements are needed for planetary protection. This could be a major challenge for the surface.
If your mission is an orbiter, then you need to show that you have an end of mission plan to prevent it contaminating Europa.
For Ganymede, it also has a subsurface ocean. But probably no communication with the surface in the recent geological past. You might be able to land humans there. It's provisional category II like Ceres meaning more research is needed. So, a mission right now would probably have to play safe and assume you treat the surface as if it is going to be contaminated by a human or unsterilized lander until we know more.
That's different from for instance the Moon which is a confirmed category II so there are considered to be no planetary protection issues involved even landing humans there, you just have to document clearly what you did and where you went.
Callisto is the best for humans because it is furthest out, and so least by way of radiation hazard from Jupiter - and if it has a subsurface ocean - well its surface is very ancient looking. Just craters, no other type of terrain. So the current understanding is that there is no communication with any subsurface ocean, so even though it probably has a subsurface ocean, its about 200 km below the surface and is thought to have no communication at all with the surface.
It doesn't have the tidal heating of Europa so the rocky core is probably just slowly cooling down with little or no activity. But is not impossible it has microbial life down there.
Anyway because of that complete isolation of any ocean from the surface in all the models of the moon, Callisto is classified by COSPAR as category II like the Moon so you can just go ahead and land humans there and nobody will stop you. You just have to provide documentation of everything you do there.
The planetary protection rules, whatever they are, are enforced by all the countries involved in the flight. That includes the country you launch from, your country of citizenship, if you have astronauts then all their countries of citizenship - if it is an international organization then all the countries involved in that also. They are like quarantine rules somewhat. Or rules protecting Antarctica or the sea floor. Every country is responsible for the actions of its citizens. Doesn't matter how you get into space. What matters is what you plan to do when you are there.
Everybody with any plans to do any space activities plans to follow the requirements of planetary protection. Even N. Korea has signed and ratified the outer space treaty. Syria hasn't ratified it, but doesn't seem at all likely it would launch a mission to Jupiter and if it does reach that level of capability then presumably it would ratify it too by then like N. Korea.
The country you launch from may well have many other things you have to do. In the US you have to do an environmental impact assessment of your launch for instance. If you have nuclear materials on board, as you might well do, then you have to prove that it is properly contained and can't harm people even in the event that your rocket explodes on the launch pad or during the ascent.
I'm sure there is much more.
It's sort of like building a skyscraper. You can't just turn up with a lorry and a load of cement and steel and start building whatever you like, have to prove to everyone that your plans are safe for you and for everyone else.
For humans in space, then the regulations for commercial flight are not yet fully worked out. That's deliberate to give the commercial private companies time to develop their ideas first, to give them flexibility to innovate. So then the regulations can be developed later once they have some concrete examples to legislate for. So that's a reason for less regulation, on the other hand the commercial companies want enough certainty about what the regulations will be to design spaceships to comply with them, so there are these two competing strands of thought involved there.
Right now that is very much in a state of flux. I'm not sure what the latest is, but this is from August 27 of this year. The Sky's the Limit With Commercial Space Flight Law
I'm not at all expert in this, hopefully others will explain more, just to get it started and because you asked me to answer.
About the Author
Robert Walker
Writer of articles on Mars and Space issues - Software Developer of Tune Smithy, Bounce Metronome etc.Studied at Wolfson College, Oxford
Lives in Isle of Mull
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